Introduction
This essay is based on the Social Cognitive Theory written by Albert Bandura. My goal is to explain his theory in a way that makes it easier to digest and simpler to understand. I summarize the learning theory and how it relates to eLearning while highlighting concepts and comments from key theorists. I explain why I selected this theory and identify the role of the learner and instructor. Three instruction examples are chosen to illustrate what Social Cognitive Theory would look like as taught in my eLearning/online course.
Social Cognitive Theory Highlights
In the 1950’s, a number of learning and instruction theories were being developed for both children and adults. One example was Julian Rotter’s Social Learning Theory, published in 1954. Rotter integrated learning and personalities, stating that individuals considered the likely consequences of their actions in any situation and that their behavior was based on their beliefs.
In 1961, Albert Bandura recognized that many theories overlooked an important aspect of learning: the observation of others. This analysis formed the basis for Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. “Of the many cues that influence behavior, at any point in time, none is more common than the actions of others.”[1]
Bandura believed that traditional learning theories overlooked social influences on learning. This support was felt by other theorists of the day who believed that observation and imitation of behavior were not enough for ‘total learning’ to occur.
In 1986, Bandura revised his theory and added the major role cognition plays in interpreting and performing behaviors. There needed to be an element of behavior including the cognitive component. (Hergenhahn & Olsen, 2005). “Social Cognitive Theory defines learning as an internal mental process that may or may not be reflected in immediate behavioral change.” [2]
Merriam & Bierema say:
“Social cognitive learning theory highlights the idea that much human learning occurs in a social environment. By observing others, people acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes. Individuals also learn about the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors by observing models and the consequences of modeled behaviors, and they act in accordance with their beliefs concerning the expected outcomes of actions.”[3]
Bandura suggested that the learner processes information (cognitively) when learning, and while observing others, the learner models the behavior (social) which can be positive or negative. An example of use in eLearning would be using live educational videos of the learner’s performance to ensure the task was performed correctly.
The aspect of Bandura’s social cognitive theory that I find most useful for my future eLearning instruction is modeling. Two types of models explained by Bandura are 1) real-life, such as teachers, peers, and parents and 2) symbolic models, which may be living or like characters in fictional books, movies, and television. The model must be competent and must have power due to the learner looking up to the model for behavioural cues, whether positive or negative. An example of use in eLearning would be movies, television, Blogs, YouTube, and other educational videos.
Social Cognitive Theory in a two-minute YouTube video.
Why I chose the Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura discusses self-efficacy beliefs, which refer to a person’s confidence in engaging in specific activities that contribute toward progress to their goals (Bandura, 1997). Combine that with modeling and mentoring… that is the formula for success in my courses.
It is important for me to engage my students in a learning environment which is challenging but also rewarding. The Social Cognitive Theory has a research base demonstrating the predictive impact of self-efficacy beliefs on exercising control over choices and pursuits of one’s goals in life. It motivates learners to be confident. For over 30 years, extensive research has shown the effects of self-efficacy beliefs on a wide variety of human activity.[4] Examples are: academics (Schunk, 1991, 1996); career (Betz, 2006); health (Bandura, 1991); athletics (Bandura, 1997). My teaching may result in a new career for my learners or help learners in their current career.
Role of the Learner
The learner must understand what the outcome may be if that behavior is repeated and anticipate similar outcomes when performing the behavior. These are called outcome expectancies, and therefore modeling involves cognition and behavior.
Bandura suggests the learner must have four aspects present to develop modeled behavior: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. (Isom, 1998) Simply stated, the learner must be paying attention, they must remember the behavior, they must be physically able to model the behavior, and they must feel there is a reward for that behavior. In eLearning and the use of interactive activities, the learner’s responsibility would be to actively interact, discuss, connect, and participate.
Role of the Instructor
The role of the instructor is to provide guidance and to help the learner see the outcome of a specific behavior. The instructor must make it clear to the learner that when a behavior is successfully learned, the outcomes are meaningful and valuable to the learner.
The instructor must allow the student to perceive their performance by providing feedback to help them understand their level of proficiency. The instructor must ensure that the learners have the knowledge and strategies they need to complete the tasks. Learners become more active, pay attention, more motivated, and are better learners when they perceive that they have mastered a task.[5]
The instructor should be aware that adult self-efficacy is specific to each situation and that it is based on performance in past experiences. It affects all learners and the instructor should know that underprepared learners are particularly vulnerable. Bandura makes it clear that self-efficacy beliefs are stronger predictors of adult behavior than self-concept and self-esteem.
By providing the learner with positive communication, feedback to help improve comprehension, and assisting with managing anxiety, instructors will help build self-efficacy, self-confidence, and self-esteem. (Rutherford & Henning, 2012). The instructor must respect the learner as a person and genuinely care for and encourage the learner.
Strategies I use while teaching in my classroom are Modelling, Peer Learning, Storytelling, Role Playing, and Dialogue. At the conclusion of my courses, a personalized Certificate of Achievement is presented to each learner.
I will continue examining the content, intention, and curriculum of my course with the goal of considering the purpose of the content taught and expectations placed on learners. Understanding these differences will help me as an instructor to better communicate valuable information to adult learners in my class. In eLearning, sharing of knowledge is encouraged so I will continue with real-time “instructor to learner” and “learner to learner” presentations.
How can the role of learner be manifested in the role of online learning? What would be important for an instructor to do in his or her online course?
Every subject that I teach offers opportunities for critical reflection, so I make sure to include such critical reflection in all my classes. My classes include real problems and issues. Critical reflection is a great compliment because it involves observation, asking questions, and putting facts, ideas, and experiences together to derive new meaning. It also provides my learners with an opportunity to examine and question their own personal beliefs, opinions, and values. This results in my learners improving their academic skills and having a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Learners can take what they learn in my class one day and use it immediately for personal development, increased self-awareness, and professional presentation in whatever vocation they choose.
Critical thinking skills fit perfectly with peer learning and role-playing strategies for written statements, interviewing techniques, report writing, and notebooks. This strategy is where learners are assigned a partner so that they interact and help each other attain the same learning goal. With the help of written course material, the learners ask each other ‘open-ended’ questions, make notes, and take written statements from each other. The big six questions are identified: who, what, where, when, why, and how. At the end of class, learners compare and read aloud their work to the class. Learners feel there is comfort in numbers, and they know they are in an environment where they can have an expectation of experiencing learning success.
I have an opportunity to substantially increase the use of technology in my classroom. For example, Rutherford (2010) states “Education can be enhanced by the use of social media to strengthen the relationship between students, classmates, and instructors.”[6] It is clear to me that uses for social media tools in my teaching process can allow learners to access the information from laptops and mobile devices during class, as well as before and after class. This will give the learners a positive and effective relationship with the materials, their peers, and myself.
The technology I intend to incorporate in my eLearning classes may include educational videos, PowerPoint, a live video of the learner’s performance, video conferencing, storytelling, discussion boards, and instant messaging. I must learn to embrace Myspace, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, Wiki, Blogs, Vlogs, and Ted Talk videos, a task I take seriously.
I will continue to add to my blog on WordPress and have information available to my learners for classroom instruction and general interest. I will introduce Ted videos, Utube videos, and scan over 350 course related photographs. I will look at recording my lectures where they can be added to the learner’s homework assignment.
Three Classroom Examples
My course is a practical application of social justice. The curriculum introduces learners to a competency-based approach to the concepts and practices of law enforcement. Bandura suggests the most effective way of developing a strong sense of self-efficacy is through mastery experiences. Successfully completing a task strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately complete a challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy.[7] My eLearning course will include ‘social modeling’ which is witnessing other people successfully completing a task. I like the Social Cognitive Theory because it allows learners to accumulate new skills and knowledge, maybe without actively engaging in the event themselves. Examples used in the classroom may be role-playing or simulation games which would allow learners to problem solve, make decisions, practice skills, reflect, and evaluate. (Burke & Muncuso, 2012).
Example 1 – Traffic Direction and Control
During a career in law enforcement, learners will periodically be assigned to manually direct and control vehicular and pedestrian movement. Such assignments may be performed at congested intersections, accident scenes, athletic events, disaster areas, races, fairs, social, and political events. Learners will be expected to indicate to drivers and pedestrians how, when, and where they may move. The learner must analyze the situation and determine what course of action is necessary to establish the smooth flow of traffic and prevent delays. This job is impossible using only verbal commands. A type of sign language must be used which is clearly understandable to all persons being directed.
In my eLearning course, I will include theory in the morning – Cognitive (knowledge, expectations, attitudes), and practical training in the afternoon – Behavioral (skills, practice, self-efficacy) and Environmental (social, community, influence). The learners are aware of my career background and experience and feel comfortable with me as their model. I am aware of my learner’s experience and feel comfortable knowing what challenges they may face in the day.
I will include external aids and props such as plastic laminated posters with engineered diagrams using examples of Kelowna’s street intersections. I have the basic single lane street, four-way intersections’ and others while working their way in difficulty to the major highway intersections. The equipment for day and night use is identified and their use demonstrated. The subject is discussed including public relations, types of traffic control, duties, and responsibilities, and more. My style of instruction is participatory with lots of questions and discussion knowing the anticipated expectations will be to stand in the middle of a busy intersection with real vehicles and people to direct traffic. In a practical setting, stress and anxiety vary greatly with each learner.
I will design a video where my learners learn by observing me in the classroom first and then on the street. The learner’s belief in their own self-efficacy and ability influences how well or poorly the learner reproduces the desired observed behavior. Nonetheless, their confidence builds from easiest to the hardest intersections. The experience always changes my learner’s behavior towards directing traffic in a positive way. The learners regulate their own learning and behavior by choosing a more difficult or less difficult intersection to control due to their own comfort level.
At the end of the day, the reinforcement included a “job well done”. Traffic control is dangerous, and my goal is always safety first. In my eLearning course, Media sources such as YouTube and compact disc movies will be presented, and I may have to modify learning to include hybrid face-to-face learning.
Example 2 – Critical/Tactical Communication
I give my learners real life or death examples which I have experienced over my forty-two years of law enforcement. I demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and attitude required. I reinforce the rules, strategies, and results of knowing both critical and tactical communication techniques. As a competent model, I teach my learners effective strategies for dealing with challenging and/or threatening situations. The learners are told that it is important to accept working conditions and to know there will always be conflict in the workplace. Verbal resistance and conflicts are ok and, when you expect it, you will be better able to deal with it.
Some topics that we discuss are the social influence theory, factors of influence for authority roles, beneficial outcomes, proxemics, speaking skills, toxic communication styles, and more. Learners find the delivery script for tactical communication interesting because they can use the techniques at home or work immediately. The steps include bonding, purpose, listen carefully, showing empathy and feelings, involvement, resolution, and decision making. In my eLearning class, perhaps through live video, I role play with every student and demonstrate how many ways they can communicate with people.
The students are paired up and an assortment of scenarios are suggested for role- playing. I have experienced all the scenarios and there is no one best tactic for success. The skills are explained and demonstrated. I tell my students, “If you are still getting verbal resistance then you are communicating. When the talking stops, that is the time to re-evaluate your tactics.”
It is amazing to watch the increase in self-efficacy and confidence of the learner building through the week. The learners observe each other, evaluate the role play, reflect on the results, and learn from each other. In my eLearning course, I will use photographs, YouTube, and Google video to transfer real-life situations, so learners develop personal meaning and contextualize the information.
Example 3 – How to Testify as a Professional Witness
Testifying as a witness in court is probably the most stressful portion of the course for my learners. Court testimony is on the last afternoon of the week. I start the week by helping learners feel comfortable in knowing that giving evidence in court is nothing more than telling a story. Also, by the time to give evidence, 95% of the work is finished. For example, the investigation is complete, the paperwork submitted, court documents prepared; all before you arrive at the courthouse. Going to court and giving a few minutes of evidence is minor in comparison to the work that has already been done.
The week prior to court, through video conferencing, the learners will be taught how to write a report to Crown counsel; how to present, defend, and enter evidence; and understand the procedures and outcomes. The day before attending court, learners receive a talk discussing topics such as preparing 24 hours before the court, case preparation, and cross-examination. Learners will receive eleven scenario examples of what to say when giving evidence to an assortment of criminal offenses. Some learners who have been successful in previous classes allow me to share their graded written reports with current learners. These provide new learners with realistic examples of successful performance and help learners strengthen their expectations for success. Next, learners are paired up: one learner is the accused, and the other the law enforcement officer. They practice providing evidence and get the chance to witness each other model different scenarios.
For eLearning and simulation examples, I can utilize Zoom and arrange the use of a courtroom in the Kelowna Provincial Court. Learners will be divided into groups and choose a scenario of their own while having the evening to prepare their case for court. The learners are told that I will be the acting judge. Prior to court, I know which students are better prepared and capable of performing to a higher standard. As a result, I have the experienced students start first, with the less experienced students later in the day. This allows time for the learner to learn from the modeling of their peers.
The learners give their verbal testimony, enter documents into court, question the accused, and hear the verdict. The presiding judge, peers, and I would give feedback. Although, over the years, I have had sitting judges, sitting judicial justices of the peace, and a defense attorney preside as the role-play judge. The learners are always surprised, and a lesson well learned. Always expect the unexpected in law enforcement.
Conclusion
Social Cognitive Theory is based on the premise that learners learn not only through their own experiences but by observing the actions of others and the results of those actions. Learners are influenced by their environment and the belief in their own self-efficacy influences whether they will or will not reproduce an observed behavior. This theory appeals to me because it combines behaviorism with cognitive learning.
Watching learners in my courses successfully perform the learning activity through modeling and observational learning, while at the same time taking a step toward enhancing their self-efficacy and confidence, to me, is what teaching is all about.
References
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[1] (Bandura, 1986, pp. 206)
[2] (Bandura, 1986)
[3] (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, pp. 35)
[4] (Erlich, 2011, pp. 5)
[5] (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015)
[6] (Rutherford, 2010)
[7] (Bandura, 1994)
On Task Teaching 